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place in the distal nerve stump secondary to separation of the nerve axon from its cell body. Nerve recovery in a degenerative lesion depends on the basal lamina preservation. In other words, if the basal lamina remains intact, the...

region, the basal ganglia, and the ventrolateral thalamus 2. Reduced serotonergic projections result from degenerative raphe nuclei (RN). 3. Increased noradrenergic projection from the locus coeruleus (LC). While the pathophysiologic...

may be due to specific insufficiencies such as pathologic laxity, arthrokinematic changes, synovial irritation, or degenerative changes. Functional instability is caused by insufficiencies in proprioception and neuromuscular control...

stressors and restores mitochondrial and cellular homeostasis (Fig. 2A); on the other hand, insufficient function leads to degenerative disease, and inappropriate gain-of-function is associated with carcinogenesis (Fig. 2B,C). The...